This document does not reflect the intent or official position of the bill sponsor or House of Representatives.
STORAGE NAME: h0401z1.DOCX
DATE: 4/29/2024
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES STAFF FINAL BILL ANALYSIS
BILL #: CS/HB 401 Tracking Devices and Applications
SPONSOR(S): Judiciary Committee, Overdorf and others
TIED BILLS: IDEN./SIM. BILLS: CS/SB 758
FINAL HOUSE FLOOR ACTION: 113 Y’s
0 N’s GOVERNOR’S ACTION: Approved
SUMMARY ANALYSIS
CS/HB 401 passed the House on March 5, 2024, as CS/SB 758.
A consumer tracking device is intended to help track missing items when attached to belongings such as a
user’s purse, keys, wallet, or luggage. As availability and use of affordable consumer tracking devices has
increased, so too have concerns about the potential for nefarious uses of such technology. In recent years,
there have been numerous reports of tracking devices having been planted into clothing and purses or
attached to the vehicle of another person without their knowledge. In addition to tracking devices, tracking
applications that are downloadable to mobile devices can also be used to follow the location or movement of
another person, potentially without that person’s knowledge or consent.
Unless exempted, s. 934.425, F.S., prohibits
a person from knowingly installing a tracking device or tracking
application on another person’s property without the other person’s consent. A violation of the prohibition is
punishable as a second degree misdemeanor. Current law does not specifically prohibit the placement, as it
does the installation of a tracking device or application on another person’s property without his or her consent;
or prohibit the unconsented use of a tracking device or tracking application by a person other than the one
responsible for installing the device or application.
The bill amends s. 934.425, F.S., to prohibit a person from knowingly:
Placing, in addition to installing, a tracking device or tracking application on another person’s property
without that person’s consent; or
Using a tracking device or tracking application to determine the location or movement of another person
or another person’s property without that person’s consent.
The bill expands the scope of prohibited conduct to capture those persons who do not install or place a
tracking device or tracking application on another person’s property themselves, but who nonetheless access
and use such a device or application to determine the location or movement of another person or another
person’s property without that person’s consent. The bill increases the penalty for a violation of s. 934.425,
F.S., from a second degree misdemeanor to a third degree felony, punishable by up to five years imprisonment
and a $5,000 fine.
The bill also amends an exception to the prohibitions to allow an owner or lessee of a motor vehicle to install,
place, or use a tracking device or tracking application if the owner of the vehicle at the time of the installation or
placement was the original manufacturer of the vehicle and the next owner of the vehicle was informed of the
location and how to remove the device before the vehicle title is transferred.
The Criminal Justice Impact Conference reviewed the bill on February 12, 2024, and determined that the bill
may have a positive indeterminate prison bed impact. The bill expands the scope of prohibited conduct under
s. 934.425, F.S., and increases the penalty for a violation from a second degree misdemeanor to a third
degree felony, which may result in longer jail sentences and new prison admissions.
The bill was approved by the Governor on April 26, 2024, ch. 2024-114, L.O.F., and will become effective on
October 1, 2024.
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I. SUBSTANTIVE INFORMATION
A. EFFECT OF CHANGES:
Background
Location Tracking Technology
Affordable consumer tracking products are derived from four methods of functionality, including:
The Global Positioning System (GPS): A space-based radio navigation system, owned by the
United States Government and operated by the United States Space Force. Access to precise
positioning service is restricted to the United States Armed Forces, Federal agencies, and
select allied armed forces and governments. Standard positioning service is available to all
users on a continuous basis, free of any direct charge to users.
1
GPS is widely used in a variety
of applications because its capabilities are accessible using small, inexpensive equipment.
2
Wi-Fi Positioning: Wi-Fi can be leveraged to detect and track the location of people, devices,
and assets, and can be easily activated for indoor positioning with existing Wi-Fi access points.
The most commonly used Wi-Fi positioning techniques determine a device’s location by using a
measure called received signal strength indicator (RSSI). In RSSI applications, multiple existing
Wi-Fi access points or Wi-Fi enabled sensors deployed in a fixed position detect transmitting
Wi-Fi devices and the received signal strength of a device’s signal. The location data collected
by the access points or sensors is sent to the central indoor positioning or real-time location
system, which analyzes the data to estimate the position of the transmitting device.
3
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE): BLE uses small Bluetooth transmitters, called Beacons, to detect
wireless devices such as BLE-enabled smart phones. Beacons broadcast signals at regular
intervals that can be detected by other BLE-enabled devices. Location data from Beacons are
collected by a BLE device and forwarded to an internal positioning system to determine the
devices location. Like Wi-Fi, BLE primarily uses RSSI to detect the location of people, devices,
and assets.
4
Ultra-Wideband (UWB) Technology: UWB allows for information to be transmitted across a wide
radio bandwidth. While similar to Wi-Fi and Bluetooth technology, UWB technology measures
time of flight (ToF) as opposed to utilizing RSSI. Utilizing ToF, an electromagnetic impulse is
sent from one device to another, measuring the time it takes from transmission to receipt of the
impulse, and allowing for the determination of distance between devices. Measurements are
then able to be correlated to determine a signal’s angle of arrival, allowing UWB “tagged”
objects to be located with accuracy down to the centimeter, which is far more precise than
Bluetooth technology permits.
5
1
Catherine G. Manning, What is GPS, NASA, (Sept. 25, 2023) https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/somd/space-communications-
navigtation-program/gps/ (last visited Mar. 11, 2024).
2
Satellite Navigation- Global Positioning System (GPS), Federal Aviation Administration, Satellite Navigation - Global Positioning
System (GPS) | Federal Aviation Administration (faa.gov) (last visited Mar. 11, 2024).
3
What is Wi-Fi Positioning, Inpixon Indoor Intelligence, https://www.inpixon.com/technology/standards/wifi (last visited Mar. 11, 2024).
4
Bluetooth RTLS, Location Tracking, & Positioning, Inpixon Indoor Intelligence,
https://www.inpixon.com/technology/standards/bluetooth-low-energy (last visited Mar. 11, 2024).
5
Robert Triggs, Calvin Wankhede, What is UWB, and why is it in my phone? Ultra wideband technology, explained, Android Authority,
(Aug. 30, 2023), What is UWB used for in phones? Ultra wideband technology, explained (androidauthority.com) (last visited Mar. 11,
2024).
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Abuse of Location Tracking Technology
A consumer tracking device is intended to help users track missing items when attached to belongings
such as a user’s purse, keys, wallet, or luggage. In the case of a missing item, the device sends its
current location back to the user, and in some cases, provides the user with directions to the device’s
location.
6
These popular devices sell from around 25 to 35 dollars for one unit to around 100 dollars for
a four-pack of units.
7
As availability and use of affordable consumer tracking devices has increased, so too have concerns
about the potential for nefarious uses of such tracking technology. In recent years, there have been
numerous reports of consumer trackers being discovered having been planted into clothing and purses
or attached to the vehicle of another person without their knowledge.
8
In response, the manufacturers
of some tracking devices have made efforts to curb their misuse and make consumers aware if a
device has gone out of range or if a device is away from its owner and nearby another networked
device for an extended period of time.
9
Additionally, some companies have developed applications that can be used by consumers to scan for
nearby tracking devices.
10
Other companies have specifically employed anti-stalking measures in the
functionality of the tracking device itself, such as requiring a user to register using multi-factor
authentication, provide government identification, and acknowledge that personal information can and
will be shared with law enforcement at the company’s discretion to aid in the investigation and
prosecution of suspected stalking.
11
In addition to tracking devices, tracking applications can also be used to follow the location or
movement of another person, potentially without that person’s knowledge or consent. Some
applications, such as Find My iPhone and other applications developed to help parents keep tabs on
minor children, have legitimate uses but may be accessed by third parties without the consent of the
user. Other applications are developed and marketed as surveillance applications, commonly targeting
potential customers interested in using the technology to track the movements and communications of
a romantic partner.
12
Some tech platforms have responded to the proliferation of these applications by
banning companies from advertising applications on their platforms with the express purpose of
tracking and monitoring another person or their activities without their authorization.
13
6
Samantha Cole, Police Records Show Women Are Being Stalked With Apple AirTags Across the Country, Motherboard Tech by
VICE, (Apr. 6, 2022) https://www.vice.com/en/article/y3vj3y/apple-airtags-police-reports-stalking-harassement (last visited Mar. 11,
2024).
7
Kevin Webb and Annabelle Williams, Apple’s AirTag is designed to compete with Tile’s family of Bluetooth trackers-here’s how they
stack up, Business Insider, (Aug. 24, 2022) https://www.businessinsider.com/guides/tech/apple-airtags-vs-tile-tracker-bluetooth (last
visited Mar. 11, 2024).
8
Emily J. Hanson and Kristin Finklea, Stalking Concerns Raised by Bluetooth Tracking Technologies: In Brief, Congressional Research
Service, (Feb. 15, 2022), https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47035/2 (last visited Mar. 11, 2024); Lisa Zobel, Mark
Muldofsky, Nicole Mastrangelo, Deborah Kim, Anneke Ball, Rachel Wenzlaff, and Ivan Pereira, Apple AirTags causing major security
concerns over reports of stalking, ABC News, (Jan. 20, 2023) https://abcnews.go.com/US/apple-airtags-causing-major-security-
concerns-reports-stalking/story?id=96531871 (last visited Mar. 11, 2024).
9
For example, iPhone owners should receive a push alert whenever an unknown AirTag is nearby for an extended period of time and
away from its owner. Reece Rogers, Are you Being Tracked by an AirTag? Here’s How to Check, Wired, (Aug. 11, 2023)
https://www.wired.com/story/how-to-find-airtags/ (last visited Mar. 11, 2024).
10
Id.
11
Sarah Perez, Tile takes extreme steps to limit stalkers and thieves from using its Bluetooth trackers, TechCrunch (Feb. 16, 2023),
https://techcrunch.com/2023/02/16/tile-takes-extreme-steps-to-limit-stalkers-and-thieves-from-using-its-bluetooth-trackers/ (last visited
Mar. 11, 2024).
12
Jennifer Valentino-DeVries, Hundreds of Apps Can Empower Stalkers to Track Their Victims, The New York Times, (May 19, 2018)
https:///www.nytimes.com/2018/05/19/technology/phone-apps-stalking.html (last visited Mar. 11, 2024).
13
Zack Whittaker, ‘Stalkerware’ phone spying apps have escaped Google’s ad ban, TechCrunch, (Aug. 11, 2023)
https://techcrunch.com/2020/08/11/stalkerware-apps-google-ads/ (last visited Mar. 11, 2024).
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Unlawful Installation of a Tracking Device or Application
Unless exempted, s. 934.425, F.S., prohibits
a person from knowingly installing a tracking device
14
or
tracking application
15
on another person’s property without the other person’s consent.
Section 934.425, F.S., specifies that the prohibition does not apply to:
A law enforcement officer as defined in s. 943.10, F.S., or any local, state, federal, or military
law enforcement agency, that lawfully installs a tracking device or tracking application on
another person’s property as part of a criminal investigation;
A parent or legal guardian of a minor child who installs a tracking device or tracking application
on the minor child’s property if:
o The parents or legal guardians are lawfully married to each other and are not separated
or otherwise living apart, and either parent or legal guardian consents to the installation
of the tracking device or tracking application;
o The parent or legal guardian is the sole surviving parent or legal guardian of the minor
child;
o The parent or legal guardian has sole custody of the minor child; or
o The parents or legal guardians are divorced, separated, or otherwise living apart and
both consent to the installation of the tracking device or tracking application;
A caregiver of an elderly person or disabled adult, as those terms are defined in s. 825.101,
F.S., if the elderly person or disabled adult’s treating physician certifies that the installation of a
tracking device or tracking application onto the elderly person or disabled adult’s property is
necessary to ensure the safety of the elderly person or disabled adult;
A person acting in good faith on behalf of a business entity for a legitimate business purpose,
except for persons engaged in private investigation, as defined in s. 493.6101, F.S;
16
or
An owner or lessee of a motor vehicle that installs, or directs the installation of, a tracking device
or tracking application on such vehicle during the period of ownership or lease, provided that:
o The tracking device or tracking application is removed before the vehicle’s title is
transferred or the vehicle’s lease expires;
o The new owner or lessor of the vehicle consents in writing for the tracking device or
tracking application to remain installed; or
o The owner of the vehicle at the time of the installation of the tracking device or tracking
application was the original manufacturer of the vehicle.
17
Additionally, s. 934.425, F.S., specifies that a person’s consent to be tracked is presumed to be
revoked if:
The consenting person and the person to whom consent was given are lawfully married and
one person files a petition for dissolution of marriage from the other; or
The consenting person or the person to whom consent was given files an injunction for
protection against the other person pursuant to s. 741.30, F.S., relating to domestic violence, s.
741.315, F.S., relating to foreign protection orders, s. 784.046, F.S., relating to repeat violence,
sexual violence, or dating violence, or s. 784.0485, F.S., relating to stalking.
18
14
A “tracking device” means any device whose primary purpose is to track or identify the location or movement of an individual. S.
934.425(1)(c), F.S.
15
A “tracking application” means any software program whose primary purpose is to track or identify the location or movement of an
individual. S. 934.425(1)(b), F.S.
16
“Private investigation” means the investigation by a person or persons for the purpose of obtaining information with reference to any
of the following matters: crime or wrong done or threatened against the United States or any state or territory of the United States, when
operating under express written authority of the governmental official responsible for such investigation; to identify habits, conduct,
movements, whereabouts, affiliations, associations, transactions, reputation, or character of any society, person, or groups of persons;
the credibility of witnesses or other persons; the whereabouts of missing persons, owners of unclaimed property or escheated property,
or heirs to estates; the location or recovery of lost or stolen property; the causes and origin of, or responsibility for, fires, libels, slanders,
losses, accidents, damage, or injuries to real or personal property; or the business of securing evidence to be used before investigating
committees or boards of award or arbitration or in the trial of civil or criminal cases and the preparation thereof. S. 493.6101(17), F.S.
17
S. 934.425(4)(a-e), F.S.
18
S. 934.425(3)(a-b), F.S.
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A violation of the prohibition is punishable as a second degree misdemeanor.
19
Current law does not specifically prohibit the placement, rather than the installation, of a tracking device
or application on another person’s property without his or her consent or prohibit the unconsented to
use of a tracking device or tracking application by a person other than the one responsible for installing
the device or application.
Grounds for Issuance of a Search Warrant
Under s. 933.02, F.S., a search warrant may be issued upon the following grounds:
When the property shall have been stolen or embezzled in violation of law;
When any property shall have been used:
o As a means to commit any crime;
o In connection with gambling, gambling implements and appliances; or
o In violation of s. 847.011, F.S., or other laws in reference to obscene prints and
literature;
When any property constitutes evidence relevant to proving that a felony has been committed;
When property is being held or possessed:
o In violation of any of the laws prohibiting the manufacture, sale, and transportation of
intoxicating liquors;
o In violation of the fish and game laws;
o In violation of the laws relative to food and drug; or
o In violation of the laws relative to citrus disease pursuant to s. 581.184, F.S.; or
When the laws in relation to cruelty to animals, as provided in ch. 828, F.S., have been or are
violated in any particular building or place.
20
Summarizing the distinction between misdemeanor and felony crimes in relation to obtaining property
via a search warrant, the Fourth District Court of Appeal has said, “property used to commit any
crime—whether felony or misdemeanor—may be seized under a warrant; while property merely
constituting relevant evidence of a crime may be seized only if the suspected crime is a felony.”
21
Regarding a misdemeanor crime, “property seized can be retained only if it constitutes property actually
used to commit the misdemeanors alleged as the basis for the warrant.”
22
Under current law, because a violation of s. 934.425, F.S., for the unlawful installation of a tracking
device or application is a second degree misdemeanor, evidence such as subscriber information or
application, location, or download data may fall outside the scope of property for which a law
enforcement officer may obtain a search warrant and thus is unavailable to aide in a criminal
investigation.
Criminal Punishment Code
Felony offenses which are subject to the Criminal Punishment Code
23
are listed in a single offense
severity ranking chart (OSRC),
24
which uses 10 offense levels to rank felonies from least severe to
most severe. Each felony offense listed in the OSRC is assigned a level according to the severity of the
19
A second degree misdemeanor is punishable by up to 60 days in county jail and a $500 fine. Ss. 775.082 and 775.083, F.S.
20
S. 933.02, F.S.
21
Bordo, Inc. v. State, 627 So. 2d 561, 563 (Fla. 4th DCA 1993).
22
Id. at 564.
23
All felony offenses, with the exception of capital felonies, committed on or after October 1, 1998, are subject to the Criminal
Punishment Code. S. 921.002, F.S.
24
S. 921.0022, F.S.
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offense.
25,26
A person’s primary offense, any other current offenses, and prior convictions are scored
using the points designated for the offense severity level of each offense.
27,28
The final score
calculation, following the scoresheet formula, determines the lowest permissible sentence that a trial
court may impose, absent a valid reason for departure.
29
Effect of the Bill
The bill amends s. 934.425, F.S., to prohibit a person from knowingly:
Placing, in addition to installing, a tracking device or tracking application on another person’s
property without that person’s consent; or
Using a tracking device or tracking application to determine the location or movement of another
person or another person’s property without that person’s consent.
The bill expands the scope of prohibited conduct by capturing the unlawful placement of a tracking
device or tracking application on another person’s property, rather than just the installation of a tracking
device or tracking application on another person’s property. The change may clarify that in order to
commit a violation a person need not be required to affix a tracking device or application to a piece of
property, but also commits a violation by simply dropping such a device into another person’s property,
such as a purse or coat pocket.
The bill also expands the scope of prohibited conduct by also capturing those persons who do not
install or place a tracking device or tracking application on another person’s property themselves, but
who nonetheless access and use such a device or application to determine the location or movement
of another person or another person’s property without that person’s consent.
The bill updates the exceptions under s. 934.425(4), F.S., so that exempted persons may install, place,
or use a tracking device or tracking application under specified circumstances. Additionally, the bill
amends an exception to the prohibitions to allow an owner or lessee of a motor vehicle to install, place,
or use a tracking device or tracking application if the owner of the vehicle at the time of the installation
or placement was the original manufacturer of the vehicle and the next owner of the vehicle was
informed of the location and how to remove the device before the vehicle title is transferred.
The bill increases the penalty for a violation of s. 934.425, F.S., from a second degree misdemeanor to
a third degree felony, punishable by up to five years imprisonment and a $5,000 fine. However, the bill
does not rank the offense on the OSRC, and as such, under s. 921.0023, F.S., the offense defaults to a
level 1 offense.
Additionally, because the bill increases the penalty for a violation from a second degree misdemeanor
to a third degree felony, a law enforcement officer may be able to obtain a search warrant under s.
933.02, F.S., for property constituting evidence relevant to proving that a felony has been committed.
As such, law enforcement may be able to obtain a search warrant to access evidence such as
subscriber information and application, location, and download data from a tracking device, which may
be essential to properly investigating unlawful tracking violations.
Finally, the bill amends s. 493.6118, F.S., relating to grounds for disciplinary action of private
investigators, to conform that section to changes made by the bill.
25
S. 921.0022(2), F.S.
26
Felony offenses that are not listed in the OSRC default to statutorily assigned levels, as follows: an unlisted third-degree felony
defaults to a level 1; an unlisted second-degree felony defaults to a level 4; an unlisted first-degree felony defaults to a level 7; an
unlisted first-degree felony punishable by life defaults to a level 9; and an unlisted life felony defaults to a level 10. S. 921.0023, F.S.
27
Ss. 921.0022 and 921.0024, F.S.
28
A person may also accumulate points for factors such as victim injury points, community sanction violation points, and certain
sentencing multipliers. S. 921.0024(1), F.S.
29
If a person scores more than 44 points, the lowest permissible sentence is a specified term of months in state prison, determined by
a formula. If a person scores 44 points or fewer, the court may impose a non-prison sanction, such as a county jail sentence, probation,
or community control. S. 921.0024(2), F.S.
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The effective date of the bill is October 1, 2024.
II. FISCAL ANALYSIS & ECONOMIC IMPACT STATEMENT
A. FISCAL IMPACT ON STATE GOVERNMENT:
1. Revenues:
None.
2. Expenditures:
See Fiscal Comments.
B. FISCAL IMPACT ON LOCAL GOVERNMENTS:
1. Revenues:
None.
2. Expenditures:
See Fiscal Comments.
C. DIRECT ECONOMIC IMPACT ON PRIVATE SECTOR:
None.
D. FISCAL COMMENTS:
The Criminal Justice Impact Conference reviewed the bill on February 12, 2024, and determined that
the bill may have a positive indeterminate prison bed impact. The bill expands the scope of prohibited
conduct under s. 934.425, F.S., and increases the penalty for a violation from a second degree
misdemeanor to a third degree felony, which may result in longer jail sentences and new prison
admissions.